Introduction The exploration of space has always been driven by humanity’s desire to answer some of the most fundamental questions: Where did we come from? How did the Earth form? How did our solar system evolve into what it is today? NASA’s Juno Mission, which was launched in 2011 and entered Jupiter’s orbit in July…
Introduction Coal has been one of the most important natural resources shaping human civilization since the industrial revolution. As the primary source of energy for centuries, it has fueled industries, powered railways, generated electricity, and contributed significantly to economic growth and modernization. However, coal mining and coal combustion have been identified as major contributors to…
Introduction Pulses—also known as grain legumes—are a group of edible seeds harvested from plants belonging to the legume family (Fabaceae). They include a variety of crops such as lentils, chickpeas, beans, peas, pigeon peas, mung beans, urad beans, and cowpeas. For thousands of years, pulses have played a crucial role in global agriculture, food systems,…
Introduction The cryosphere refers to the portion of the Earth’s surface where water exists in solid form, including ice caps, glaciers, sea ice, snow cover, permafrost, and frozen ground. It plays a critical role in regulating global climate, influencing atmospheric temperatures, ocean circulation, sea levels, and the hydrological cycle. Covering approximately 9% of Earth’s land…
Introduction Oceanic salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (NaCl), in seawater. Salinity is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or grams of salt per kilogram of seawater. On average, the world’s oceans have a salinity of about 35 ppt, but this value varies widely depending on geographic location, depth,…
Introduction Petroleum refineries are industrial facilities where crude oil is processed into useful products such as gasoline, diesel, kerosene, jet fuel, lubricants, and petrochemical feedstocks. While one might logically assume that refineries are located close to crude oil producing areas to minimize transportation costs, in many developing countries, refineries are often situated far from oil…
Introduction India is a country with a diverse hydrological profile, ranging from the snow-fed Himalayan rivers to the monsoon-dependent peninsular rivers. Floods, especially during the monsoon season, have long been considered a major natural hazard, causing loss of life, property, and agricultural productivity. According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), floods affect more than…
Introduction The monsoon climate is one of the most distinctive climatic systems in the world, marked by seasonal reversal of winds, distinct wet and dry periods, and high rainfall intensity. It plays a crucial role in sustaining the agriculture, economy, and livelihoods of over 50% of the world’s population residing in Monsoon Asia, which includes…