Introduction Economic planning has been a cornerstone of India’s developmental journey since independence. When India gained freedom in 1947, it faced widespread poverty, low per capita income, unemployment, underdeveloped industries, and stagnant agriculture. To overcome these structural challenges, India adopted the model of planned economic development, inspired by socialist ideas and the success of the…
Introduction Energy security is one of the cornerstones of India’s economic and strategic policy. As the world transitions from fossil fuels to renewable energy, India faces the dual challenge of meeting its growing energy demands and reducing its dependence on imports. In this context, the discovery of substantial shale oil and gas reserves in India…
Introduction Urbanization is one of the most powerful and transformative processes shaping the Earth’s surface today. While cities are engines of economic growth and human development, they also profoundly alter the natural environment. Among the most significant and widely studied environmental impacts of urbanization is the Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon—a condition where urban areas…
Introduction In the field of meteorology, understanding the vertical distribution of temperature in the atmosphere is essential to explain various weather phenomena. Normally, as altitude increases, air temperature decreases—a process known as the normal lapse rate, averaging around 6.5°C per 1000 meters. However, under certain conditions, this pattern reverses, and the temperature increases with height…
Introduction Deserts are among the most striking and unique landscapes on Earth. They represent regions of extreme aridity, where annual rainfall is minimal, and evaporation exceeds precipitation by a large margin. Interestingly, a striking pattern emerges when one observes the global distribution of deserts — most of the major hot deserts in the world are…
Introduction The theory of continental drift is one of the most significant scientific hypotheses in the field of geology and physical geography, explaining the past movements of the Earth’s landmasses and the formation of continents as we see them today. Proposed in the early 20th century, the theory revolutionized our understanding of Earth’s dynamic surface,…
Introduction The global energy scenario is undergoing a profound transformation. With the ever-growing scarcity of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, and the environmental challenges associated with their use, nations are seeking alternative and sustainable sources of energy. Among these, atomic energy — also called nuclear energy — has emerged as a vital…
Introduction Rivers are dynamic landform creators, and their lower courses often deposit sediments to form deltas at their mouths. Deltas are fan-shaped or triangular deposits of alluvium, formed where rivers enter a standing body of water such as a sea or a lake. India, with its vast river systems, hosts many prominent deltas, including the…
Introduction Sugarcane cultivation and sugar production have long been integral to India’s agricultural and industrial landscape. India is the second-largest producer of sugar globally, contributing significantly to rural employment, agro-industrial development, and foreign exchange earnings through sugar exports. Traditionally, northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have dominated sugar production due to favorable agro-climatic conditions…
Introduction The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest and most significant sectors of India’s economy, tracing its roots back to ancient times. Known for its craftsmanship, handloom weaving, and regional diversity, this industry has evolved into both a large-scale mechanized sector and a highly decentralized cottage and small-scale industry. Unlike many modern industrial…