Introduction The Green Revolution in India, initiated in the 1960s, marked a transformative period in Indian agriculture. It was characterized by the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice, intensive use of chemical fertilizers, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, and adoption of modern farming practices. While this revolution dramatically increased food grain production in…
Introduction Africa, the world’s second-largest continent, is endowed with abundant natural resources, including oil, natural gas, coal, uranium, rare earth minerals, timber, and fertile agricultural land. Over the last two decades, Africa has emerged as a critical economic and strategic partner for many global powers seeking to secure energy, minerals, and markets for industrial growth….
Introduction The iron and steel industry has historically been the backbone of industrialization, shaping economic development, urbanization, and global trade patterns. Steel is indispensable for infrastructure, construction, automobiles, machinery, and defense industries. Over time, the spatial distribution of iron and steel production has undergone significant changes, influenced by technological advancements, resource availability, globalization, and policy…
Introduction Tropical cyclones are among the most destructive natural hazards, capable of causing massive loss of life, property damage, and economic disruption. Across the globe, these storms are known by different regional names such as hurricanes in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific, typhoons in the western Pacific, and cyclones in the Indian Ocean and South…
Introduction Water has been one of the most critical natural resources shaping human civilization, particularly in South Asia, where rivers have historically supported dense populations, agriculture, and trade. Among these rivers, the Indus system has been of paramount importance, sustaining millions of people across present-day India and Pakistan. However, the political partition of the Indian…
Introduction The South China Sea (SCS) has emerged as one of the most contested maritime regions in the world. Geographically situated at the crossroads of the Asia-Pacific, it stretches across an area of around 3.5 million square kilometers, bounded by China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Despite its relatively modest size compared…
The effective management of land and water resources plays a central role in alleviating poverty, reducing disasters, improving food security, and ensuring environmental sustainability. It is widely recognized that a mismanagement of these resources is at the core of many human miseries ranging from drought and famine to displacement, economic instability, and conflict. A systematic…
Introduction The Earth’s atmosphere is not a uniform body of air. Instead, it is composed of vast segments with distinct physical properties of temperature, pressure, and humidity. These large bodies of air are known as air masses. An air mass can cover thousands of kilometers and extend vertically through the troposphere. Its characteristics are determined…
Introduction The Himalayas, often called the “Roof of the World,” are a young and fragile mountain system formed less than 70 million years ago due to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Stretching over 2,400 kilometers across India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan, these mountains are characterized by steep slopes, fragile geology, and…
Introduction Inland Water Transport (IWT) refers to the movement of goods and passengers using rivers, canals, lakes, and other inland waterways. Globally, IWT is considered a cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly mode of transport, especially for bulk cargo. In India, with an extensive network of rivers and canals spanning over 14,500 km, inland waterways have…