Introduction India is a country with a diverse hydrological profile, ranging from the snow-fed Himalayan rivers to the monsoon-dependent peninsular rivers. Floods, especially during the monsoon season, have long been considered a major natural hazard, causing loss of life, property, and agricultural productivity. According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), floods affect more than…
Introduction The monsoon climate is one of the most distinctive climatic systems in the world, marked by seasonal reversal of winds, distinct wet and dry periods, and high rainfall intensity. It plays a crucial role in sustaining the agriculture, economy, and livelihoods of over 50% of the world’s population residing in Monsoon Asia, which includes…
Introduction “Dead Zones” are hypoxic (low-oxygen) regions in oceans, seas, and large freshwater bodies where oxygen levels are too low to sustain most marine life. Scientifically, hypoxia is defined as dissolved oxygen concentration below 2 mg/L, which is lethal for many fish, invertebrates, and benthic organisms. Dead zones have become one of the most pressing…
Introduction Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and are essential for maintaining global climate, supporting biodiversity, and regulating biogeochemical cycles. Within this vast expanse, ocean currents and water masses play critical roles in shaping marine ecosystems, influencing climate, and affecting coastal environments. While ocean currents are large-scale horizontal flows of seawater driven…
Introduction Mountain ecosystems are among the most fragile and biodiverse ecosystems on Earth. They provide essential ecosystem services such as water regulation, biodiversity conservation, soil stabilization, climate regulation, and cultural heritage. These ecosystems support millions of people directly and indirectly through agriculture, forest products, and tourism. However, in recent decades, development initiatives and tourism have…
Introduction Water is one of the most essential natural resources, critical for human survival, agriculture, industry, and ecosystem sustainability. India, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, faces a growing challenge of water stress, characterized by the scarcity of water relative to demand. Rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization, climate change, and unsustainable water management have intensified…
Introduction Agro-based food processing industries play a pivotal role in adding value to agricultural produce, reducing post-harvest losses, generating employment, and contributing to regional economic growth. India’s north-west region, encompassing Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh, is often referred to as the “Granary of India” due to its high agricultural productivity. The localization of…
Introduction Employment generation remains a central concern for India’s economic growth. Despite rapid GDP growth, India faces challenges of unemployment, underemployment, and regional economic disparities. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2021–22, the unemployment rate in India was around 7–8%, with rural areas facing disguised unemployment in agriculture and urban areas struggling with…
Introduction Mangroves are one of the most vital ecosystems in the tropical and subtropical coastal zones. They consist of salt-tolerant plant species such as Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, and Bruguiera, thriving in intertidal regions where rivers meet the sea. Despite covering less than 1% of tropical forests globally, mangroves provide disproportionate ecological, economic, and social benefits….
Introduction Coral reefs, often referred to as the “rainforests of the sea,” are among the most biologically diverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. They provide shelter, food, and breeding grounds for nearly one-quarter of all marine species, despite covering less than 1% of the ocean floor. Beyond biodiversity, coral ecosystems contribute to human societies by…