Introduction Earth’s climate system is a complex interaction of various atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. Among the most influential natural climatic phenomena that disrupt this balance are El Niño and La Niña, collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These irregular periodic variations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and wind patterns in the central…
Introduction Air is an essential component of life on Earth. It is a mixture of different gases that form the Earth’s atmosphere and sustain various biological and chemical processes. The composition of air is not only crucial for respiration but also plays a significant role in weather patterns, climate regulation, and ecological balance. The presence…
Introduction Glaciers are among the most powerful geological agents shaping the Earth’s surface. In high mountain areas, they play a crucial role in sculpting landscapes through processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition. Over thousands of years, glaciers carve valleys, form unique landforms, and leave behind distinctive geological features that define high-altitude terrains. These changes are…