Introduction Rivers are dynamic landform creators, and their lower courses often deposit sediments to form deltas at their mouths. Deltas are fan-shaped or triangular deposits of alluvium, formed where rivers enter a standing body of water such as a sea or a lake. India, with its vast river systems, hosts many prominent deltas, including the…
Introduction Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and are essential for maintaining global climate, supporting biodiversity, and regulating biogeochemical cycles. Within this vast expanse, ocean currents and water masses play critical roles in shaping marine ecosystems, influencing climate, and affecting coastal environments. While ocean currents are large-scale horizontal flows of seawater driven…
Introduction Mangroves are one of the most vital ecosystems in the tropical and subtropical coastal zones. They consist of salt-tolerant plant species such as Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, and Bruguiera, thriving in intertidal regions where rivers meet the sea. Despite covering less than 1% of tropical forests globally, mangroves provide disproportionate ecological, economic, and social benefits….
Introduction Climate change is no longer a distant threat but a present reality, reshaping coastlines, ecosystems, and human settlements worldwide. Among the most vulnerable regions are India’s vast coastal zones, stretching over 7,500 kilometers. In particular, the Sundarbans — the world’s largest mangrove forest — and Mumbai — India’s financial capital — stand at the…
Introduction Earth’s climate system is a complex interaction of various atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. Among the most influential natural climatic phenomena that disrupt this balance are El Niño and La Niña, collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These irregular periodic variations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and wind patterns in the central…
Introduction Climate change is one of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century, with its effects disproportionately impacting developing countries. Despite contributing the least to greenhouse gas emissions, these nations bear the highest burden of climate-related disasters such as rising temperatures, extreme weather events, sea-level rise, water scarcity, and agricultural disruptions. Developing countries,…
Introduction The Indian Ocean, the third-largest ocean in the world, is a critical resource for many countries bordering its vast expanse. It provides significant ecological, economic, and strategic benefits. The exploitation of resources from the Indian Ocean, including fishing, oil and gas extraction, deep-sea mining, and shipping activities, has led to various ecological problems. These…