Introduction Oceanic salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (NaCl), in seawater. Salinity is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or grams of salt per kilogram of seawater. On average, the world’s oceans have a salinity of about 35 ppt, but this value varies widely depending on geographic location, depth,…
Introduction Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and are essential for maintaining global climate, supporting biodiversity, and regulating biogeochemical cycles. Within this vast expanse, ocean currents and water masses play critical roles in shaping marine ecosystems, influencing climate, and affecting coastal environments. While ocean currents are large-scale horizontal flows of seawater driven…
Introduction Coral reefs, often referred to as the “rainforests of the sea,” are among the most biologically diverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. They provide shelter, food, and breeding grounds for nearly one-quarter of all marine species, despite covering less than 1% of the ocean floor. Beyond biodiversity, coral ecosystems contribute to human societies by…
Introduction Climate change is no longer a distant threat but a present reality, reshaping coastlines, ecosystems, and human settlements worldwide. Among the most vulnerable regions are India’s vast coastal zones, stretching over 7,500 kilometers. In particular, the Sundarbans — the world’s largest mangrove forest — and Mumbai — India’s financial capital — stand at the…
Introduction Earth’s climate system is a complex interaction of various atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. Among the most influential natural climatic phenomena that disrupt this balance are El Niño and La Niña, collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These irregular periodic variations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and wind patterns in the central…