Introduction
The early 20th century marked a radical shift in India’s freedom struggle with the rise of mass-based movements under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) emerged as two landmark phases that galvanized Indian society against British colonial rule. In both these national movements, Uttar Pradesh (then the United Provinces) played a central and dynamic role, contributing ideologically, politically, and through mass participation.
This essay critically examines the role of Uttar Pradesh in these two movements, analyzing its leadership, public engagement, regional dynamics, and long-term impact on the Indian freedom struggle.
Background: Uttar Pradesh in Early 20th Century Nationalism
Before diving into the specific movements, it is important to understand the socio-political climate of Uttar Pradesh. The region had:
- A strong presence of the educated middle class, especially in cities like Allahabad, Lucknow, Varanasi, and Kanpur.
- An emerging class of lawyers, teachers, and students who were highly influenced by nationalist thought.
- A rich legacy of earlier revolts, notably the 1857 Rebellion, which continued to inspire freedom fighters.
The founding of Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in 1916 and the activities of political leaders from UP helped in turning the region into a nerve center of political awakening.
Uttar Pradesh and the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
1. Genesis and National Context
Launched in 1920 in response to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the Khilafat issue, the Non-Cooperation Movement urged Indians to withdraw from British institutions, boycott foreign goods, and adopt swadeshi practices. Uttar Pradesh quickly became a key battleground in this movement.
2. Political Mobilization in UP
UP saw massive political mobilization, spearheaded by local leaders and supported by the Indian National Congress. The province became a hub for activities like:
- Boycott of British schools and colleges
- Resignation from government jobs
- Boycott of foreign cloth and promotion of khadi
- Public meetings, hartals, and picketing of liquor shops
Cities like Allahabad, Lucknow, Gorakhpur, and Faizabad witnessed large-scale participation.
3. Role of Regional Leaders
UP produced some of the most important leaders of this phase:
- Pandit Motilal Nehru: Initially moderate, but later fully aligned with Gandhi’s vision.
- Jawaharlal Nehru: Actively involved in rural mobilization and was imprisoned during the movement.
- Gobind Ballabh Pant: A lawyer from Almora who emerged as a mass leader during this time.
- Purushottam Das Tandon and Lal Bahadur Shastri: Youth leaders inspired by Gandhian methods.
These leaders ensured that both urban intellectuals and rural peasants participated in the struggle.
4. Peasant Participation – The Case of Awadh
A noteworthy feature of the movement in UP was the peasant activism under leaders like Baba Ram Chandra and Nehru in the Awadh region. Peasants protested against:
- High rents and oppressive landlords (taluqdars)
- Begar (forced labor) system
- Colonial revenue practices
Though Gandhi disapproved of violent peasant revolts, their participation reflected deep socio-economic unrest fueling nationalism.
5. Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)
Perhaps the most critical event that altered the course of the movement was the Chauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur district, where protestors burned a police station, killing 22 policemen. This led Gandhi to suspend the movement, citing the need for non-violence.
Critical View:
While Chauri Chaura was condemned, it symbolized the rising frustration among the rural poor and raised questions about the limits of passive resistance in the face of colonial oppression.
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement in UP
- It politicized the rural masses, creating a long-lasting consciousness.
- Fostered Hindu-Muslim unity, especially under the influence of the Khilafat movement.
- Exposed the contradictions between elite leadership and grassroots militancy.
- Created a new generation of nationalist leaders in UP.
Uttar Pradesh and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)
1. Background and National Context
The Civil Disobedience Movement was launched following the failure of the Simon Commission and the rejection of demands for full dominion status. Gandhi’s historic Salt March in 1930 triggered mass defiance across India. In UP, this movement took on a multi-dimensional character.
2. Local Leadership and Organizational Strength
By this time, Congress had become well-organized in UP. Provincial Congress Committees in Allahabad, Kanpur, Faizabad, and Basti played a vital role in executing the movement. Leaders like:
- Jawaharlal Nehru: Became a national icon, with frequent arrests and speeches across UP.
- T. B. Sapru and Rajendra Prasad: Played behind-the-scenes roles in strategic negotiations.
- Rafi Ahmed Kidwai, Krishna Kant Malaviya, and others led regional satyagrahas.
3. Salt Satyagraha and Local Variations
While UP is not coastal, its leaders symbolically manufactured salt in towns and organized raids on government offices, picketing liquor shops, and boycotts of British goods.
Notable activities included:
- No-tax campaigns in rural districts
- Protests against forest laws in regions like Mirzapur and Banda
- Student strikes and participation from women’s groups
4. Role of Women in UP
Women played a visible role in this phase:
- Kamala Nehru: Took leadership roles in Allahabad during her husband’s imprisonment.
- Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Sarla Devi: Mobilized women in education and picketing.
Women in UP defied purdah norms and contributed actively, representing a sociocultural transformation.
5. Repression and Imprisonment
The British cracked down heavily in UP:
- Mass arrests of leaders, including Jawaharlal and Kamala Nehru
- Lathi charges on peaceful protestors, especially in Kanpur and Faizabad
- Censorship of newspapers like Leader and Pratap
Despite repression, the spirit of defiance remained intact.
6. Youth and Student Movements
UP’s universities, especially Allahabad University and BHU, became centers of youth activism. Student groups organized:
- Picketing of foreign goods shops
- Publishing underground literature
- Organizing cultural programs to awaken national pride
Critical Evaluation of UP’s Role
Strengths
- High Participation: Both urban and rural areas showed intense participation.
- Leadership Hub: Produced iconic leaders like Nehru, Pant, Tandon.
- Symbolic Protests: Even without salt, UP created symbolic acts of defiance.
- Women’s Empowerment: Strong involvement of women added a social revolution element.
Weaknesses
- Lack of Coordination: The rural protests were not always aligned with the central Congress strategy.
- Violence vs. Non-Violence: In both phases, some protests turned violent, challenging Gandhi’s approach.
- Elite Dominance: At times, the leadership remained in the hands of upper-caste elites, limiting inclusiveness.
Long-Term Impact
- Deepened anti-colonial consciousness in towns and villages.
- Prepared the ground for the Quit India Movement (1942).
- Helped in Congress’s electoral victory in 1937 under the Government of India Act, 1935.
- Strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity, though later events would challenge it.
Conclusion
Uttar Pradesh was not merely a participant in the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements—it was one of their driving forces. The region provided leaders, mass support, and symbolic resistance that shaped the trajectory of India’s freedom struggle.
From the peasant revolts in Awadh to urban protests in Allahabad, from the valor of women like Kamala Nehru to the ideological convictions of Jawaharlal Nehru, UP embodied the spirit of national awakening.
Critically, UP’s experience also highlights the complexities of mass mobilization, the challenges of maintaining non-violence, and the gaps between elite leadership and grassroots demands. Yet, despite these contradictions, Uttar Pradesh’s contribution remains foundational in India’s journey towards independence.
