Introduction The Himalayas, often referred to as the “Third Pole”, host the largest concentration of glaciers outside the polar regions. They are the lifeline of several major rivers in South Asia, including the Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries, which support over 1.5 billion people. In recent decades, these glaciers have been shrinking at an…
Introduction The cryosphere refers to the portion of the Earth’s surface where water exists in solid form, including ice caps, glaciers, sea ice, snow cover, permafrost, and frozen ground. It plays a critical role in regulating global climate, influencing atmospheric temperatures, ocean circulation, sea levels, and the hydrological cycle. Covering approximately 9% of Earth’s land…
Introduction Oceanic salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (NaCl), in seawater. Salinity is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or grams of salt per kilogram of seawater. On average, the world’s oceans have a salinity of about 35 ppt, but this value varies widely depending on geographic location, depth,…
Introduction The monsoon climate is one of the most distinctive climatic systems in the world, marked by seasonal reversal of winds, distinct wet and dry periods, and high rainfall intensity. It plays a crucial role in sustaining the agriculture, economy, and livelihoods of over 50% of the world’s population residing in Monsoon Asia, which includes…
Introduction Agroecology has emerged as a transformative approach to agriculture that merges ecological science with traditional agricultural knowledge and sustainable farming practices. Rooted in both scientific and indigenous understandings of nature, agroecology seeks to design resilient farming systems that are ecologically sound, socially just, and economically viable. Central to the practice and philosophy of agroecology…
Introduction Climate change has emerged as a significant threat to global food security, ecosystem balance, and rural livelihoods, particularly in countries like India where agriculture remains the mainstay of millions. Erratic rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, soil degradation, and the loss of biodiversity are intensifying farming challenges. In this context, agroforestry has gained prominence as a…
Introduction to Smart Irrigation Water scarcity has emerged as one of the most pressing issues facing the world today, particularly in agriculture. Agriculture accounts for about 70% of global freshwater use, and this figure is expected to rise with the increasing demand for food. As populations grow and climate change exacerbates water shortages, farmers are…
Introduction Climate change is no longer a distant threat but a present reality, reshaping coastlines, ecosystems, and human settlements worldwide. Among the most vulnerable regions are India’s vast coastal zones, stretching over 7,500 kilometers. In particular, the Sundarbans — the world’s largest mangrove forest — and Mumbai — India’s financial capital — stand at the…
Introduction Earth’s climate system is a complex interaction of various atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. Among the most influential natural climatic phenomena that disrupt this balance are El Niño and La Niña, collectively known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These irregular periodic variations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and wind patterns in the central…
Introduction In recent decades, the frequency and intensity of natural disasters have escalated dramatically across the globe. These disasters—ranging from cyclones, floods, earthquakes, wildfires, and droughts—are increasingly linked to the growing impacts of climate change. Rising global temperatures, melting glaciers, erratic rainfall, and rising sea levels are not only environmental challenges but also catalysts for…