Introduction The Earth’s atmosphere is not a uniform body of air. Instead, it is composed of vast segments with distinct physical properties of temperature, pressure, and humidity. These large bodies of air are known as air masses. An air mass can cover thousands of kilometers and extend vertically through the troposphere. Its characteristics are determined…
Introduction The Himalayas, often called the “Roof of the World,” are a young and fragile mountain system formed less than 70 million years ago due to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Stretching over 2,400 kilometers across India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan, these mountains are characterized by steep slopes, fragile geology, and…
Introduction Inland Water Transport (IWT) refers to the movement of goods and passengers using rivers, canals, lakes, and other inland waterways. Globally, IWT is considered a cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly mode of transport, especially for bulk cargo. In India, with an extensive network of rivers and canals spanning over 14,500 km, inland waterways have…
Introduction Water scarcity is a persistent challenge in many parts of India, particularly in drought-prone and semi-arid regions such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and parts of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. These areas experience erratic rainfall, high evapotranspiration, low groundwater recharge, and over-dependence on monsoon rains, resulting in water stress for agriculture, livestock, and…
Introduction Oceans cover nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface and act as vast reservoirs of energy, nutrients, and biodiversity. The waters of the oceans are never static; they are constantly moving in well-defined patterns known as ocean currents. Ocean currents are large-scale horizontal flows of water within the oceans, influenced by a combination of natural…
Introduction The Indian monsoon is one of the most prominent climatic phenomena on Earth. It is a seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by heavy rainfall that sustains nearly 1.4 billion people, agriculture-based economies, and diverse ecosystems in South Asia. The monsoon is not merely a meteorological event but the lifeline of India’s socio-economic system. Traditionally,…
Introduction India is geographically and hydrologically blessed with abundant freshwater resources. The country receives an average annual precipitation of around 4000 billion cubic meters (BCM), which is nearly 4% of the world’s total fresh water, while supporting nearly 18% of the global population. Major perennial rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus systems, along with…
Introduction The Indian Himalayan region, renowned for its scenic beauty, rich biodiversity, and cultural heritage, has emerged as a major tourist destination. States like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand attract millions of domestic and international tourists every year. Tourism provides substantial economic benefits, creating employment, fostering local entrepreneurship, and generating revenue for state…
Introduction The Arctic region, encompassing the Arctic Ocean and its surrounding territories, is one of the last frontiers for global energy exploration. With retreating sea ice due to climate change, vast reserves of hydrocarbons—particularly oil and natural gas—have become accessible, making the Arctic a focal point of geopolitical, economic, and environmental interest. According to the…
Introduction The exploration of space has always been driven by humanity’s desire to answer some of the most fundamental questions: Where did we come from? How did the Earth form? How did our solar system evolve into what it is today? NASA’s Juno Mission, which was launched in 2011 and entered Jupiter’s orbit in July…